|
|
Joseph
Francis Alward
|
The Bible tells us that the spirit of the Lord was
in David, and from the seed of King David will arise a savior of Judea who will
rule the earth:
So Samuel took the horn of oil and anointed
him in the presence of his brothers, and from that day on the Spirit of the
LORD came upon David in power
(1 Samuel 16:13)
The LORD hath sworn in truth unto David; he
will not turn from it; Of the fruit of thy body will I set upon thy
throne (Psalms 132:11)
I will raise unto David a righteous Branch, and
a King shall reign and prosper, and shall execute judgment and justice in the
earth. In his days Judah shall be saved, and Israel shall dwell safely.
(Jeremiah 23:5-6)
Concerning his Son Jesus Christ our Lord,
which was made of the seed of David according to the flesh (Romans 1:3)
To sell Jesus to the Hebrews as the rightful heir to
the throne of the house of David, Mark apparently decided to show them that
events in the life of David prefigured those in Jesus’ life. In what follows I show how Mark may have
used the holy scripture as a blueprint in constructing the story of Jesus’
betrayal and arrest.
The column on the left shows the Old Testament
verses which correlate with the actions and words of the main characters in
Mark’s story. Jesus is David; David’s counselor, Ahithophel, is Judas; the
high priests, elders, and teachers of the law are Saul and Absalom; Jesus’
disciples are David’s followers, and Jesus’ Peter is David’s Ittai and Elijah's
Elisha. And, of course, the Lord is the Lord.
|
Old Testament
Antecedents |
Mark’s Story of Jesus’ Betrayal |
|
David’s counselor, Ahithophel, deserted David and
went over to the side of his enemy, Absalom. Absalom…sent for
Ahithophel…David's counselor …"Ahithophel is among the conspirators with
Absalom." |
Mark models Judas in part after Ahithophel, David's counselor, who
went over to the enemy's side. Mark
will later have Jesus refer to the psalm in which David laments his betrayal. |
|
Ahithophel was
not the first to betray David. Saul
happily listens to the plan for David’s capture offered by the men among whom
David camps. The Ziphites went up to
Saul at Gibeah and said, "Is not David hiding among us… we will be
responsible for handing him over to the king." Saul replied,
"The Lord bless you for your concern for me.” (1 Samuel 23:19-21) |
Samuel spoke of David being handed over to his enemy, just as Mark
spoke of Jesus. Mark may have had in mind Isaiah’s warning about those who
plot murder and accept bribes when he spoke of Judas handing Jesus over for
money. They were delighted to hear this and promised to give him
money. So he watched for an opportunity to hand him over. (Mark
14:10-11) |
|
The psalms below are David's laments over
his betrayal by Ahithophel. "Even my close
friend, whom I trusted, he who shared my bread, has lifted up his
heel against me." (Psalm 41:9)
|
Mark has Jesus
lament his coming betrayal in words which mirror those uttered by David in
one of his psalms. When evening came,
Jesus arrived with the Twelve. While they were reclining at the table eating,
he said, "I tell you the truth, one of you will betray me--one who is
eating with me…one who dips bread into the bowl with me." (14:17-20) |
|
Yet it was the LORD's
will to crush him and cause him to suffer…the LORD makes his life a guilt
offering…(Isaiah 53:10) |
The Son of Man will go
just as it is written about him. (14:21a) |
|
Woe to you, O
destroyer, you who have not been destroyed! Woe to you, O traitor, you who
have not been betrayed! When you stop destroying, you will be destroyed; when
you stop betraying, you will be betrayed.
|
Mark has Jesus
share Isaiah’s sentiments about the fate of betrayers. But woe to that man who
betrays the Son of Man! It would be better for him if he had not been
born." (14:21b) |
|
After learning
of his betrayal by Ahithophel, David goes to Mt. of Olives to pray. Then David said to all
his officials who were with him in Jerusalem, "Come! We must
flee..” (2 Samuel 15:14)…David
continued up the Mount of Olives… (2 Samuel 15:30) |
After Jesus
speaks of his betrayal, he goes to Mt. of Olives to pray, just as did David
after his betrayal. When they had sung a
hymn, they went out to the Mount of Olives. (14:26) |
|
"Awake, O sword,
against my shepherd, against the man who is close to me!" declares the
LORD Almighty. "Strike the shepherd, and the sheep will be scattered…”
|
Mark lets
Zechariah prophesy the flight of Jesus’ disciples. "You will all fall
away," Jesus told them, "for it is written: "`I will strike
the shepherd, and the sheep will be scattered.' “ (Mark 14:27) |
|
The king's officials answered him, "Your servants are ready to do
whatever our lord the king chooses." (2 Samuel 15:15) But Ittai replied to
the king, "As surely as the LORD lives, and as my lord the king lives,
wherever my lord the king may be, whether it means life or death, there
will your servant be." (2 Samuel 15:25) When the LORD was about to take Elijah up to heaven…Elisha said,
"As surely as the LORD lives and as you live, I will not leave you." (2 Kings 2:1) |
Mark uses Elisha and David’s followers as models for Peter and the
disciples. Peter's actions here are
also modeled in part after those of Elisha, who was Elijah’s disciple, and
Ittai, a follower of David. Peter declared, "Even if all fall away, I will not”…
"Even if I have to die with you, I will never disown you."
And all the others said the same.
(14:29, 31) |
|
David grieves
about his counselor’s betrayal. But David continued up
the Mount of Olives, weeping as he went (up Mt. of Olives); his head
was covered and he was barefoot. |
Jesus’ betrayal
and his coming death weigh heavily on him. They went to a place
called Gethsemane, and Jesus said to his disciples, "Sit here while I
pray.”…"My soul is overwhelmed with sorrow to the point of
death," he said to them…" (14:32-34) |
|
David expresses
hope that he will prevail, but recognizes it's the Lord's decision to make.
|
Mark patterns Jesus’ prayer after David’s acceptance of God’s will. Abba, Father," he said, "…Take
this cup from me (remove my suffering). Yet not what I will, but what you
will." (14:36) |
|
"I rise before
dawn and cry for help; I have put my hope in your word. My eyes stay open
through the watches of the night, that I may meditate on your
promises…Those who devise wicked schemes are near, but they are far
from your law." (Psalm 119: 147-150)
|
Mark uses the
psalmists' pleas to create his story of Jesus and his disciples' keeping
their eyes open, watching with a willing spirit, and waiting for the betrayer
who devised the wicked scheme. Then he returned to his
disciples and found them sleeping. "Simon," he said to Peter,
"are you asleep? Could you not keep watch for one hour? Watch and
pray so that you will not fall into temptation. The spirit is willing,
but the body is weak." …[H]e again found them sleeping, because their
eyes were heavy. (Mark 14:37-40 )
|
|
Ahithophel, the betrayer of David, wants to
attack David and scatter his people. Ahithophel
said to Absalom, "I would choose twelve thousand men and set out tonight
in pursuit of David. I would attack him while he is weary and weak. I would
strike him with terror, and then all the people with him will flee…" (2
Samuel 17:1-2) |
Mark has Judas, the betrayer of Jesus, attack Jesus, and his people
scatter. Just as he was speaking, Judas, one of the Twelve, appeared. With him
was a crowd armed with swords and clubs, sent from the chief priests,
the teachers of the law, and the elders. (14:43) |
|
The Lord says:
"These people come near to me with their mouth and honor me with
their lips, but their hearts are far from me. Wounds from a friend
can be trusted, but an enemy multiplies kisses. (Proverbs 27:6) |
Mark has Judas “honor” Jesus with the word “Rabbi," then kiss
him, thus fulfilling the prophecy in Isaiah. Now the betrayer had arranged a signal with them: "The one I kiss
is the man; arrest him and lead him away under guard." Going at once to
Jesus, Judas said, "Rabbi!" (“my master”) and kissed him.
(14:44-45) |
|
I will direct my
jealous anger against you…they will cut off your noses and your ears…(Ezekiel
23:25) |
The crowd of
men angered God, so the ear of one of them was cut off. The men seized Jesus
and arrested him. Then one of those standing near drew his sword and struck
the servant of the high priest, cutting off his ear. |
|
David rebukes Saul for thinking he was a threat
to him. “Now understand and
recognize that I am not guilty of wrongdoing or rebellion. I have not
wronged you, but you are hunting me down to take my life.” (1 Samuel 24:11) |
Jesus rebukes
high priests for thinking he was a threat to them. "Am I leading a rebellion,"
said Jesus, "that you have come out with swords and clubs to capture me?
(14:48)
|
|
|
The high
priests didn’t arrest Jesus before now because the Lord had preordained that
betrayal by a friend would come first, only then would come the strike and
the scattering of sheep. Every day I was with
you, teaching in the temple courts, and you did not arrest me. But the
Scriptures must be fulfilled.” Then
everyone deserted him and fled.
(14:49-50) |
|
”Your nakedness will be exposed and your shame uncovered." (Isaiah 47:3 ) I will pull up your skirts over your face that
your shame may be seen” (Jeremiah
13:25-16) |
The flight of
the naked man symbolically exposes the uncleanliness and shame of those in
Jerusalem who receive the word with joy, but run at the first sign of trouble
because of the word. (Mark 4:16-17) A young man, wearing
nothing but a linen garment, was following Jesus. When they seized him, he fled naked, leaving his garment
behind. (14:51-52) |
Searching
for a Homeric Connection
Dennis R. MacDonald, in
his book, The Homeric Epics and the Gospel of Mark,1 advances the argument that Mark
borrowed many of the elements of the tales in the Iliad and Odyssey to
create stories about Jesus. He suggests that parts of Mark’s story about Jesus’
betrayal may be connected to the betrayal of Odysseus by his servant.
In Homer’s Odyssey,2 Odysseus’s
keeper of the goats, Melanthius, switches his loyalty from his absent master to
the suitors occupying his estate. As an
apparent reward for his loyalty, Melanthius was allowed to dine at the
occupiers’ table:
[H]e entered and sat down
among the suitors…and the revered housekeeper brought and set before him bread,
for him to eat. 3
Meanwhile, Odysseus
learns of the occupation and returns home in disguise, planning to slay the suitors. Melanthius comes close to recognizing and
identifying him--something the suitors could not have done because they’d never
met him:
Hear me now, suitors of
the glorious queen, regarding this stranger, for in truth I have seen him
before. 4
Later, Melanthius helps
arm the occupiers with “twelve shields…many helmets and spears, and brought
them back as fast as he could to…the suitors.” 5
MacDonald notes that
Judas, too, switched his loyalty, was at a meal to which he had no right as a
traitor, and was associated with an armed crowd in conflict with the hero. He
further suggests that Melanthius's near-identification of Odysseus may explain
the seemingly inexplicable need for the authorities--who well knew Jesus--to
have Judas identify him before he was arrested.6
MacDonald asks us to
consider possibilities that are far, far too remote, in my opinion. It seems almost one hundred percent certain
that Judas was at the meal having bread with Jesus because Mark wanted Jesus to
repeat David’s lament in Psalm 41 about the betrayer who shared his bread and
lifted up his heel against him, and to remind his readers about the table set
by the Lord for enemies in Psalm 23, not because Melanthius, who betrayed
Odysseus, ate bread at a table with Odysseus’ enemies.
MacDonald also suggests
that the reason Mark had Judas identify Jesus to the arresting crowd, even
though they should have known what he looked like, was that Mark wanted his
readers to compare Jesus favorably to Odysseus, who was nearly identified by
his servant. Odysseus had returned home in disguise and was plotting to kill
the suitors; Melanthius almost recognized him, and would have told Odysseus’s
enemy if he had. But, Melanthius did not
identify Odysseus, so it’s hard to see how Mark could have believed that his
readers would connect Judas--who did identify Jesus--with Melanthius.
The simpler explanation
is the one that should prevail, in my opinion: Mark had Judas betray Jesus with
honoring words ( “Rabbi”, my master ) and a kiss not because Melanthius
almost recognized Odysseus and Mark’s readers might remember this, but because
scripture spoke of betrayers who “come near…with their mouth and honor… with
their lips” and “multiply kisses.” Mark
went to great lengths, it seems, to create events in the life of Jesus which
paralleled those in David’s life; he would not have wished his readers to
simultaneously have an alternative, Odyssean, view of Jesus.
Conclusions
Virtually every verse in
Chapter 14 of Mark’s gospel can be effortlessly connected to an Old Testament
passage. Either God prearranged events
in the life of the messiah, and prefigured them in the acts of David, or else
Mark’s story about Jesus’ betrayal and arrest are fiction. I prefer the simpler explanation, one that
is not based on the supernatural.
Late note: I’ve argued here that the
flight of the naked young man at Jesus’ arrest represents Jerusalem in her
shame. An article in Biblica7
expresses other viewpoints.
Notes
[1] The Homeric Epics and the Gospel
of Mark, Dennis R. MacDonald, Yale University Press, 2000.
[2] Samuel Butler’s 1898 translation of
the Odyssey is available
online.
[3] Odyssey,
Book 22
[4] Odyssey,
Book 17.
[5] Odyssey, Book 22.
[6] MacDonald, p. 39.
[7] The Naked Young Man:
A Historian's Hypothesis on Mark 14:51-52
Notes added 02-4-02:
If the infinitely wise and all-knowing
god of the Bible exists, then that god obviously would have been smart enough
to know that Bible readers would understand that Jesus was completely alone as
he prayed at Gethsemane, so no one could have overhead his prayer.
Thus, God would know
that readers would conclude that Mark's story was at least part fiction. Now,
if the words in Mark are from God, then we may presume that God did not want
readers to think Mark just made them up, so God would have instructed Mark to
explain to his readers that God told him what words Jesus used in his
prayer. Since Mark did not do this, we may conclude that God did not help Mark
write his gospel.
If God didn't tell him, then how
did Mark decide what words to have Jesus say in his prayer? The answer to this
question is found in the accounts of the life of King David, who was said to be
the spiritual ancestor of the coming savior. Mark believed that some of the
events in the life of David were foreshadowings of events in the life of the
coming savior, so Mark made sure that Jesus' life mirrored in part the life of
David. Thus, when Mark read David's lament about an enemies at his supper
table, "You prepare
a table before me in the presence of my enemies," (Psalm 23:5) he
made sure that Jesus likewise had an enemy sit at his last supper:
When evening came, Jesus
arrived with the Twelve. While they were reclining at the table eating,
he said, "I tell you the truth, one of you will betray me (Mark 14:17-20)
The parallel Mark
constructed between David and Jesus doesn't end there. Mark also saw in the
Scriptures that David was betrayed by someone close to him, someone who dipped
his bread in the bowl with David:
David's counselor…is among the
conspirators… (2 Samuel 15:12, 31)…. Even my close friend, whom I trusted, he
who shared my bread, has lifted up his heel against me." (Psalm
41:9)
Since Mark felt sure that it was preordained that someone close to Jesus--
someone who shared bread with Jesus--would conspire against him, he made sure
it happened:
I tell you the truth, one of
you will betray me--one who is eating with me…one who dips bread into
the bowl with me. (Mark 14:17-20)
After
learning of his betrayal by his counselor, David goes to the Mount of Olives
and expresses his feeling that God's will for him will be done, so Mark has
Jesus do and say the same thing:
let him [God] do to me whatever
seems good to him." (2 Samuel 15:25-26)… David continued up the Mount
of Olives (2 Samuel 15:30)
After Jesus speaks of his betrayal, he goes to Mt. of Olives to pray, just as
did David after his betrayal.
they went out to the Mount
of Olives. (Mark 14:26)…[and Jesus told God,] "Yet [do] not what I
will, but what you will." (14:36)
Thus, nobody heard
Jesus' prayer--if there was a prayer, and God did not tell Mark what Jesus said
in the prayer. What actually happened, the evidence shows, is that Mark just
assumed that the events following David's betrayal would have to be echoed a
thousand years later in the Jesus life. Thus, following the betrayal by a
friend that Mark manufactured for Jesus, he had Jesus travel up to the Mount of
Olives, just as David did, and express the view that God would do with him what
it was God's will to do, just as did David.
The words of Jesus'
Gethsemane prayer were put there by Mark, and are complete fiction.
Other articles about Mark’s gospel:
David and Jesus
Jesus Walks on Water
Loaves and Fishes
Wicked Tenants Parables